Questions 1–4 are based on the passage below.

In what way does Burkhardt see the Renaissance as a break with the past?

The passage above can best be understood in the context of the rise of

Based on the passage and the historical context in which it was published, which of the following would most likely have influenced the author’s assertions?

Which of the following best contrasts the development described in the passage with trends in the Northern Renaissance?

Questions 5–8 are based on the passage below.

The passage best reflects which of the following developments of the early sixteenth century in Europe?

Which of the following best describes the main claim made by Machiavelli in the passage?

The process of a prince obtaining and maintaining power referred to in the passage contributed to which of the following results in the Italian City-States in the 16th century?

Based on the passage and the historical context in which it was published, which of the following would most likely have challenged the author’s assertions?

Questions 9–10 refer to the French woodcut below.

Which of the following statements is LEAST supported by the woodcut?

In which of the following countries would similar household‑based craft production and guild‑regulated artisanal work have been most common during the early modern period?

Questions 11–14 refer to the following illustration.

The economic activities illustrated in the image most directly reflect which of the following early modern European economic theories?

Which of the following states most effectively implemented policies in the seventeenth century that emphasized domestic economic development through state‑regulated manufacturing, taxes, and subsidies for luxury goods?

All of the following developments contributed to the expansion of commercial activity that supported early modern mercantilist policies EXCEPT

Which of the following groups or institutions played the most significant role in financing early modern commercial expansion associated with mercantilist policies?

Questions 15–17 are based on the passage below.

The grievances expressed in the passage most closely resemble the concerns of which other early modern group resisting state centralization?

Which long‑term development most directly contributed to the nobles’ opposition described in the passage?

The concerns voiced in the passage are best understood within the broader context of which seventeenth‑century development?

Questions 18–20 are based on the passage below.

The passage most clearly reflects which broader development in sixteenth‑century Europe?

Which factor most directly contributed to Elizabeth I issuing the policy described in the passage?

Elizabeth I’s assertion of supreme authority over religious matters most directly contrasts with which of the following positions?